The history of
IN DATES
BY GUY DE LA BEDOYERE
(EXTENDED WITH ADDITIONAL INFORMATION AUGUST
2004)
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For details of some of the individuals mentioned on this page go to People of Roman Britain
The
Second Century (AD 100 +)
The
Third Century (AD 200+)
The
Fourth Century (AD 300+)
The
Fifth Century (AD 400+)
55 BC Julius
Caesar makes his first unsuccessful foray into Britain
54 BC Julius
Caesar makes his second unsuccessful foray into Britain
Caesar
does no more than fight a few skirmishes in southern Britain on these occasions
but he introduced the Roman world to the Iron Age tribes that made up
prehistoric Britain. In fact, there had been commercial and social contact with
the Mediterranean nations for centuries. The events set off years of diplomatic
dealings with the tribes of Britain. The smart ones realised the Romans were
the most powerful and influential force around, and that having Roman support
could be decisive in their own successs.
43 AD Verica
of the Atrebates is ousted, and flees to Rome for help. This gives Claudius the
pretext he needs. Aulus Plautius leads the invasion of Roman Britain on the
orders of CLAUDIUS (41-54), and serves as the first governor. He conquers
southern Britain and arranges a triumphal march into Colchester for Claudius.
The legions involved were probably II Augusta, IX Hispana, XIV Gemina, and XX,
as well as part of VIII Augusta. Auxiliary troops made up the rest. The force
could have been as big as 40,000+ men. The II heads for the south-west, the IX
for the north, the XIV into the West Midlands. XX is based at Colchester.
47-52 Publius
Ostorius Scapula becomes governor. Colchester is made the first colony of
veteran troops and the XX legion goes west. Scapula marches against the tribes
in south Wales, and defeats a rebellion by the Iceni in East Anglia.
52-57 Aulus
Didius Gallus becomes governor. He held the Welsh tribes in check and found the
Brigantes of northern Britain, Rome’s allies, were splitting between the
feuding king Venutius and his queen Cartimandua. NERO (54-68) becomes emperor.
57/8 Quintus
Veranius Nepos becomes governor but dies in post.
57/8-61 Gaius
Suetonius Paullinus becomes governor. He sets out to destroy the Druid
stronghold in Anglesey, headquarters of the resistance to Rome. In 60 Boudica
leads the revolt of the Iceni, joined by some of the Trinovantes. They defeat part
of the IX legion. The Iceni burn Colchester, London and St Albans. Suetonius
Paullinus marches back with the XIV and XX legion and defeats Boudica, wiping
out the rebels. No tribe will ever threaten Roman Britain again this way.
Suetonius Paullinus keeps the army mobile and garrisons the south. For its part
the XIV is renamed XIV Gemina Martia Victrix, and this is probably when XX
became XX Valeria Victrix. Paullinus is opposed in his punitive policy by the
new procurator, Gaius Julius Classicianus, who is more concerned to mend fences
and build a new future. When a naval force is lost, this gives the government
the pretext to withdraw Paullinus.
61-63 Publius
Petronius Turpilianus becomes governor. The Roman historian Tacitus accuses him
of laziness, but he was probably repairing the damage in Britain and reforming
Roman government.
63-69 Marcus
Trebellius Maximus becomes governor. He, too, is accused of laziness but faced
a mutiny by the XX legion. In 68 NERO committed suicide and the Roman civil war
breaks out. GALBA (68-9) rules briefly. Trebellius seems to have fled to side
with VITELLIUS (69) in the Roman civil war.
69-71 VESPASIAN
(69-79) wins the civil war and establishes the Flavian dynasty. Marcus Vettius
Bolanus becomes governor. He rescued Cartimandua from the Brigantian feud. The
Brigantes are now drawn into the Empire. By this time XIV has been withdrawn
and replaced by the II Adiutrix Pia Fidelis. The new legion spends time at
Lincoln, replacing IX which heads off for York. The II Augusta will soon be at
Caerleon.
71-74 Quintus
Petillius Cerealis becomes governor. He annexed much of what is now northern
England, and may have founded the legionary fortress of the IX legion at York.
74-77/8 Sextus
Julius Frontinus becomes governor. He conquered the Silures in Wales. This is
almost the last Roman war in Wales. Around this time the spa at Bath is being
developed. Since Frontinus was later placed in charge of aqueducts in Rome, he
might have been responsible.
77/8-83/4 Gnaeus
Julius Agricola becomes governor. In his term he finished off the Welsh war,
conquered northern Britain, reaching as far north as the north-east tip of
Caledonia (Scotland) and circumnavigated Britain. He encouraged the erection of
public buildings, temples and houses as well as the Latin language. He is
recorded on an inscription from the new forum at St Albans (Verulamium). The
historical accounts of Tacitus end here and thereafter we have much less
detail. During this time the II Adiutrix Pia Fidelis moves to Chester while the
XX is in Scotland.
79 Accession
of TITUS (79-81). Eruption of Vesuvius in Italy.
81 Accession
of DOMITIAN (81-96)
84 DOMITIAN
recalls Agricola, abandons Caledonia and pulls back the Roman army to what is
now northern England. During this time the II Adiutrix Pia Fidelis is
withdrawn. Britain now has three legions: II Augusta (Caerleon), IX Hispana
(York), and XX Valeria Victrix (Chester).
96 Accession
of NERVA (96-8). Gloucester founded as a colony, but in fact this probably took
place under Domitian – Domitian was ‘damned’ after his murder and his
achievements suppressed by his successors. Lincoln was probably also made a
colony at this time.
98 Accession
of TRAJAN (98-117). Around this time the Vindolanda writing tablets were
written down.
The Second Century (AD100 +)
100s Around
this time the IX legion disappears. It is last recorded on an inscription from
York dated to 107-8. It was probably withdrawn from Britain and lost in an
eastern war. It is very unlikely that it was lost in Britain.
117 Accession
of HADRIAN (117-38)
119 HADRIAN
visits Britain. He orders the building of Hadrians
Wall by the governor Aulus Platorius Nepos (c. 121-24). He also
encouraged public building. The forum at Wroxeter (Salop) bears his name. The
great basilica of London was built about this time. The south of Britain is now
a settled world with towns, roads, markets, villages, industries (eg pottery),
and rural farmsteads. The north and west is a military zone with three
legionary fortresses: Caerleon (II Augusta), Chester (XX Valeria Victrix), and
York (VI Victrix). The latter was brought by Aulus Platorius Nepos.
129-30 Forum
and basilica at Wroxeter, Viroconium Cornoviorum, dedicated
138 Accession
of ANTONINUS PIUS (138-61). He fought a war in Britain and ordered a new wall,
made of turf, to be built further north – roughly between where Glasgow and
Edinburgh are now – by his governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus (c. 138-42).
140-61 The last
known major public building inscription from Britain is set up: Marcus Ulpius
Januarius, aedile at the town of Petuaria (Brough-on-Humber),
donates a new stage for the town theatre.
161 Accession
of MARCUS AURELIUS (161-80).
163 War
breaks out in northern Britain again. The governor Sextus Calpurnius Agricola
(c. 161-5) is sent against ‘the Britons’. Hadrian’s Wall is reoccupied and the
Antonine Wall abandoned.
170s Marcus
Aurelius creates an alliance with the Sarmatian Iazyges. They give him 8000 cavalry,
and the emperor sends 5500 of them to Britain though whether it was to
reinforce the garrison or train them up at a safe distance is unknown.
180 Accession
of COMMODUS (180-92), the emperor immortalized in the movie Gladiator.
184 Tribes
cross Hadrian’s Wall from Caledonia and defeated a legionary contingent.
The
garrison of Britain, outraged by the way Commodus delegated his power to the
praetorian prefect Perennis, elected one of their number, Priscus to be
emperor. Priscus declined so the garrison sent a 1500-strong delegation to
Rome. Terrified, Commodus allowed the praetorians to lynch Perennis. He sent
Pertinax to govern Britain and impose some discipline. The British legions
eventually mutinied and left Pertinax for dead. He escaped.
192 COMMODUS
murdered. All hell breaks loose. PERTINAX becomes emperor at the beginning of
193 but was murdered on 28 March after 86 days. He was followed by DIDIUS
JULIANUS who lasted 66 days. Now the civil war starts. The new British
governor, Clodius Albinus is one of the candidates to be emperor. In the east
PESCENNIUS NIGER is proclaimed emperor but is defeated by SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS in
194. Severus has convinced Albinus to be his successor and associate while he
wipes out Niger. By 195 Albinus realizes he has been tricked when Severus
declares him a public enemy. Albinus takes much of Britain’s garrison and sets
off for Gaul to meet Severus. In 197 near Lyons Albinus and his army are wiped
out. SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211) is the victor.
The Third Century (AD 200+)
205-8 Much
military rebuilding in northern Britain
208 SEPTIMIUS
SEVERUS arrives in Britain to lead the reconquest of Caledonia to toughen up
his sons, CARACALLA (211-17) and GETA (211-12). The campaign is a struggle and
inconclusive.
211 SEPTIMIUS
SEVERUS dies of exhaustion at York. CARACALLA abandons the conquests, kills his
brother the next year and embarks on a reign of terror. Britain is quiet now,
and the years ahead are marked by a vast amount of new military building on the
northern frontier. In this time, the villas of the southern lowlands start
their slow climb to wealth and greatness. In the towns, the age of public
building is all but over. The rich are beginning to spend the money on
themselves.
During
this time Britain was divided into two, so that no other governor would ever be
able to mount a rebellion. Britannia Superior is the south, ruled from
London. Britannia Inferior is the north, ruled from York – the commander
of the VI legion there now becomes its governor.
259 Gallic
Empire: POSTUMUS seizes control of Britain, Gaul and Germany to create the
Gallic Empire
268 Gallic
Empire: murder of Postumus, accession of MARIUS followed by his almost
immediate murder. Accession of VICTORINUS
270 Accession
of AURELIAN
Gallic
Empire: murder of Victorinus, accession of TETRICUS I and his son TETRICUS II
273 Suppression
of the Gallic Empire by Aurelian
275 Murder
of Aurelian. Accession of TACITUS
276 Death
of Tacitus, accession of FLORIANUS, death of Florianus, accession of PROBUS
282 Murder
of Probus, accession of CARUS
283 Elevation
of Carus’ sons CARINUS and NUMERIAN to the rank of Caesar. Death of Carus,
accession of CARINUS (West), and NUMERIAN (East) who murdered later this year
285 Murder
of Carinus. Accession of DIOCLETIAN, following the murder of Carinus
286 Appointment
of MAXIMIANUS by Diocletian to rule the West
CARAUSIUS,
commander of the British fleet, seizes control in Britain and part of northern
Gaul. This is the first ‘British Empire’. See also CARAUSIUS
293 Murder
of Carausius and accession of ALLECTUS in Britain
Diocletian
appoints junior partners (Caesars) to assist him and Maximian: Galerius (East)
and CONSTANTIUS I (West). This system is known as the Tetrarchy.
296 Defeat
and death of Allectus by the army of Constantius I. Britain passes back under
control of MAXIMIANUS (Augustus) and CONSTANTIUS I (Caesar)
The Fourth Century (AD 300+). During this time a few of the villas grow to a great size. This is the age of the fabulously wealthy, though by Empire standards Britain remains a backwater. No Roman Briton will ever have an Empire-wide reputation.
305 Abdication
of Diocletian and Maximian and elevation of CONSTANTIUS I to Augustus in the
West, with SEVERUS (Caesar)
306 Proclamation
of CONSTANTINE the Great at York following the death of his father, Constantius
I, there. This disruption of the Tetrarchic system led to protracted feuds and
wars involving Maximian and his son Maxentius
308 Settlement
at Carnuntum passes control of the West to LICINIUS (Augustus) and CONSTANTINE
I (Caesar), while Galerius (Augustus) and Maximinus (Caesar) held the East. The
feuds continued unabated because Maximian and Maxentius, and Maximinus, tried
to recapture power
By
around this time, perhaps by 296, Britain had been divided into four: Maximia
Caesariensis (the south-east and East Anglia), Britannia Prima governed from Cirencester (Wales, the southwest and West
Midlands); Britannia Secunda governed from York (the north); and, Flavia
Caesariensis governed from Lincoln (northeast Midlands and Lincolnshire).
312 Battle
of the Milvian Bridge: Constantine defeats Maxentius, using troops partly
raised in Britain. The West is now under the exclusive control of CONSTANTINE
I, while Licinius controls the East
313 Edict
of Milan guarantees total religious toleration
324 Constantine
I defeats Licinius
337 Death
of Constantine I and accession of his sons: CONSTANTINE II (Britain, Gaul and
Spain), Constantius II (the East), and Constans (Italy, Africa and Central
Europe)
340 Murder
of Constantine II by Constans. Britain passes under control of CONSTANS
343 Constans
visits Britain
350 Revolt
of MAGNENTIUS in Autun and murder of Constans
353 Suicide
of Magnentius following defeats. CONSTANTIUS II becomes ruler of the whole
Empire
360 JULIAN,
cousin of Constantius II, proclaimed emperor in Gaul
361 Death
from fever of Constantius II
363 Death
of Julian. Accession of JOVIAN, formerly commander of the imperial guard
364 Death
of Jovian. Accession of VALENTINIAN I (West) and his brother Valens (East).
367 Barbarian
conspiracy overruns Britain
GRATIAN
appointed joint Augustus in the West with VALENTINIAN I
Arrival
of Count Theodosius in Britain – he restores Britain’s defences
375 Death
of Valentinian I. GRATIAN now rules jointly in the West with his brother
VALENTINIAN II
378 Death
of Valens. Gratian and Valentinian II rule the whole Empire.
379 Appointment
of Theodosius to rule the East.
383 Death of
Gratian. MAGNUS MAXIMUS, senior officer in the British garrison, proclaimed
emperor in Britain and straightaway invades Gaul.
Theodosius’
son, Arcadius, is made joint emperor in the East.
387 Valentinian
II flees from Maximus to the East
388 Magnus
Maximus defeated and executed in Italy by THEODOSIUS
392 Murder
of Valentinian II
393 Theodosius’
son, HONORIUS, is made joint emperor
395 Death
of Theodosius. The Empire is divided between his sons: HONORIUS (West) and
Arcadius (East)
The Fifth Century (AD 400+)
407 Proclamation
of CONSTANTINE III in Britain. He moves to Gaul, taking much of what was left
of Britain’s already denuded garrison.
408 Constantine
III takes Spain (he will be defeated and killed in 411)
410 Honorius,
with scarcely the resources to defend Italy, instructs Britain to look after
its own defences. Around this time the Thetford and Hoxne treasures are
deposited, not to be found until the late 20th century.
From
now on Britain continues to live the Roman way but it had been gradually fading
for decades. The towns fade into ruin, the villas are slowly abandoned –
natural disasters or normal crises like house fires were no longer followed by
repair. We know very little about what went on but it is plain the end was
slow. There was no abrupt disaster. The Christian church in Britain remained in
contact with the continent, especially during the great crisis of the Pelagian
heresy. In 429 the British church appealed to the church in Gaul for help to
suppress the heresy. St Germanus of Auxerre arrived to deal with the problem
and visited the shrine of St Alban during this visit.
During the fifth century are the first recorded arrivals of the ANGLES, to be followed by the SAXONS. In 446 the Britons appealed for help and in 449 the Saxon invasions became critical. The Britons and their church are forced westwards, with their culture surviving in the place-names of Wales, the south-west, and the Welsh and Cornish languages that preserve some Latin words. Southern Britain becomes ENGLAND, the pagan land of the Anglo-Saxons. Into this melting pot the Vikings started to arrive from the end of the